The Open Polar Sea: A narrative of a voyage of discovery towards the North pole, in the schooner "United States"

In Short

Isaac Israel Hayes records the harrowing 1860–1861 Arctic expedition of the schooner United States, which sailed from Boston to Smith Sound. Seeking to confirm the existence of an open polar sea, Hayes and his fourteen-man crew endure crushing pack ice, freezing gales, total winter darkness, and the sudden loss of key companions. Grounded in meticulous scientific observation and daily survival, the narrative captures glacial movements, indigenous Esquimau encounters, and grueling sledge journeys over treacherous ice-fields. It endures as a vivid, candid classic of nineteenth-century polar exploration, capturing both nature’s majestic terror and the unyielding spirit of maritime discovery.

The Story

The expedition departs with high scientific hopes, backed by generous patrons and driven by the desire to push past previous geographic boundaries into the unknown Arctic Basin. The narrative opens with Hayes selecting a tight fourteen-man crew, balancing skilled seamen with scientific experts like the astronomer August Sonntag. Almost immediately upon entering northern waters, the harsh reality of the environment strikes. Off Upernavik, tragedy claims Gibson Caruthers, a trusted veteran of earlier polar voyages, who dies suddenly in his berth and is laid to rest in a desolate, stone-piled Arctic grave overlooking the ocean.

Navigating through Melville Bay, the crew faces terrifying encounters with giant icebergs. Dense fog and violent gales threaten to smash the wooden schooner against colossal ice walls, but cool-headed seamanship saves the vessel from instant destruction. As autumn approaches, Hayes attempts to force the ship further north through Smith Sound. The rapid formation of sea ice around Littleton Island tightly grips the vessel. Forced to acknowledge that the navigable season is over, Hayes retreats into Hartstene Bay and moors the United States in a sheltered cove designated as Port Foulke for the long winter stay.

Life in winter harbor becomes a test of psychological and physical fortitude. Hemmed in by thick ice and shrouded in months of perpetual night, the men maintain shipboard discipline, conduct scientific experiments on low-temperature evaporation, and rely on the companionship of sled dogs and pet animals to keep low spirits at bay. Hayes carefully studies the surrounding environment, documenting the vast movement of glaciers flowing down Greenland's valleys like frozen rivers into the sea. The expedition establishes close contact with local Esquimau tribes, observing their hunting methods, social customs, and relentless struggle for existence on the frozen coast.

With the return of daylight in the spring of 1861, Hayes launches his primary objective: a desperate northward sledge journey across the shattered ice of Smith Sound toward Kennedy Channel. Dragging heavy supply sledges and a boat over massive, unstable hummocks tests the men to their breaking point. Deep snow-drifts, bitter gales, and dwindling dog food force most of the party to turn back. Hayes presses on with a single companion and a dog-sledge. Reaching latitude 81° 35′ near Cape Hawks and Cairn Point, he encounters rotten, breaking ice and open water expanding to the north. Satisfied that he has reached the shores of the open polar basin, he plants his flags on a lofty cliff, deposits a written record in a cairn, and begins the dangerous retreat to save his party from being cut off by the summer thaw.

Returning to Port Foulke, Hayes discovers that the vessel has suffered severe structural damage from the crushing ice. The stem-post is started, the iron sheathing torn, and the rudder twisted off. Through strenuous dry-docking in the ice, the crew repairs the hull, but the schooner is no longer fit to battle heavy pack ice. Hayes surveys the geological marine terraces along the rising Greenland coast before breaking free from the harbor. After charting new headlands, soundings, and mountains around Whale Sound, the United States turns back toward home.

How It Unfolds

Outfitting and loss After assembling a small crew in Boston and securing scientific instruments, the expedition sails north, but early heartbreak strikes at Upernavik when veteran explorer Gibson Caruthers dies suddenly in his berth and is buried under cold stones upon a desolate hillside.

Glancing off icebergs The schooner enters the treacherous waters of Melville Bay, narrowly dodging catastrophic collisions with massive, drifting icebergs during sudden blinding snowstorms and heavy marine fogs.

Beset in the pack Pushing up Smith Sound near Littleton Island, the vessel becomes trapped in rapidly freezing sea ice, forcing Hayes to halt his northward drive and retreat into Hartstene Bay to establish winter quarters at Port Foulke.

The long polar night Enveloped by months of complete dark, the party maintains discipline in their cramped wooden cabin, conducting daily weather and glacial experiments while receiving visits from neighboring Esquimau hunters.

The northward sledge march Spring permits a grueling attempt on the North Pole over shattered ice-fields, where the men haul heavy loads across mountainous ice hummocks until rising temperatures and rotten sea ice halt their progress at latitude 81° 35′.

Rebuilding the battered ship Upon returning to winter harbor, the crew dry-docks the schooner in the ice to repair a shattered cut-water and broken rudder before sailing into Whale Sound to complete geographical surveys and head for home.

The People

• Isaac Israel Hayes — The commander and author of the narrative. Driven by an intense desire to explore the Arctic regions and confirm the existence of an open polar basin, he balances rigorous scientific curiosity with a strict yet humane sense of command. He endures extreme physical hardship on the northern sledge journey and returns home having expanded geographic knowledge despite losing key resources.
• August Sonntag — The astronomer and second-in-command. A dedicated scientist who sacrificed his position as Associate Director of the Dudley Observatory to join the enterprise, he brings essential technical expertise and polar experience to the crew before meeting a tragic fate during the expedition.
• S. J. McCormick — The vessel's resourceful sailing master. Responsible for the nautical safety of the United States, he displays exceptional engineering skill when dry-docking the battered ship in solid sea ice to repair its crushed bow and broken rudder.
• Henry W. Dodge — The cool-headed mate of the schooner. Steadfast under extreme pressure, his steady nerves keep the crew focused while dodging lethal icebergs in heavy seas and managing arduous labor in freezing weather.
• George F. Knorr — The commander's secretary. A loyal and energetic young companion, he accompanies Hayes on the final, exhausting dog-sledge march across the breaking ice-fields to plant the expedition's flags at their farthest northern point.
• Gibson Caruthers — The boatswain and veteran polar sailor. Having served in earlier expeditions, his practical Arctic knowledge is invaluable to Hayes, making his sudden death in port a profound grief to the entire ship's company.
• Kalutunah — An Esquimau chief and hunter. Energetic and cheerful, he interacts frequently with the crew at Port Foulke, providing crucial insights into local survival methods and celebrating successful walrus and reindeer hunts with unabashed vigor.

In Its Own Voice

"The fore-yard actually grazed its side, and the surf was thrown back upon us from the white wall."

Hayes captures the heart-stopping peril of navigating Melville Bay, where a fraction of an inch separates the wooden schooner from instant destruction against a towering wall of ice.

"A glacier is in effect but a flowing stream of frozen water; and the river systems of the Temperate and Equatorial Zones become the glacier systems of the Arctic and Antarctic."

The narrative pauses to reflect on the magnificent mechanics of the natural world, linking Alpine physics to the massive ice-sheets caping the Greenland continent.

"There is no place in the world where habits of unrestrained familiarity work so much mischief as in the crowded cabin of a little vessel, nor is there any place where true politeness is so great a blessing."

Confronting months of continuous winter darkness, Hayes notes the essential psychological boundaries required to maintain sanity and morale among men locked together under the sea.

What It's Really About

Beneath its chronological record of sailing and survival, the narrative is an inquiry into the dynamic, circulating forces of the natural world. Hayes views the Arctic not as a dead, frozen wasteland, but as an active, living laboratory governed by magnificent physical laws. His observations of glacial flow, low-temperature evaporation, and coastal elevation showcase a landscape in constant motion.

The book also addresses the psychological tension between human ambition and nature's absolute boundaries. It explores how discipline, scientific curiosity, and formal courtesy allow a small community to survive isolation under extreme environmental pressure. Ultimately, it ponders the mysteries of the polar basin, measuring human endurance against the vastness of an untamed realm.

Why Read It Today

This work speaks directly to readers fascinated by wilderness survival, polar history, and classic maritime adventures. Hayes writes with clarity and observation, avoiding artificial melodrama while capturing the stark visual beauty of the Arctic sky, brilliant moonlight on endless snow fields, and the thrilling chaos of a walrus hunt. His prose brings a historical expedition to life with genuine human warmth and detail.

Readers should be prepared for the realities of a mid-nineteenth-century travelogue. The pace reflects the slow rhythm of exploratory travel, with detailed entries devoted to ice conditions, scientific observations, and naval repairs. Furthermore, the narrative reflects period attitudes toward indigenous peoples; while Hayes candidly documents the ingenuity and hospitality of the Esquimaux, his commentary carries the unabashed cultural condescension typical of Victorian era naturalists. For those willing to engage with its historical context, the book remains a thrilling, deeply immersive chronicle of pioneering polar exploration.

<ElicitationsGroup message="Explore related aspects of Arctic exploration:"> <Elicitation label="Compare this voyage to Kane's earlier Arctic expedition" query="How does Isaac Israel Hayes's account in The Open Polar Sea compare to Elisha Kent Kane's earlier Arctic expedition?"/> <Elicitation label="Examine 19th-century theories of the Open Polar Sea" query="What was the historical scientific context and theory behind the Open Polar Sea that motivated 19th-century explorers like Hayes?"/> </ElicitationsGroup>