Plutarch's essays and miscellanies, Vol. 5 (of 5)

In Short

This text is a wide-ranging anthology of ancient Greek ethical, political, and natural philosophy. Across its pages, the argument moves from the raw morality of diet to the practical duties of statecraft, the hidden intellectual lives of animals, and the physical mechanics of the cosmos. It blends historical biographical sketches of Athenian orators with lively philosophical dialogues regarding the nature of the moon and the elemental properties of heat and cold. Rather than offering a single unified narrative, the volume functions as a vast intellectual tapestry that tests human reason against both moral responsibility and the observed facts of the natural world. It has endured across two millennia because it approaches every topic—from civic obligation to animal intelligence—with deep curiosity, grounded ethical seriousness, and a profound respect for the dignity of living things.

The Story

The argument opens with a sharp moral challenge regarding human consumption and cruelty. Man is not by nature a carnivorous creature, yet he slaughter animals not out of dire necessity, but to satisfy an unrestrained and wanton appetite. This practice clogs the mind, dulls the human character, and inflicts unnecessary suffering upon creatures that possess their own senses, intelligence, and capacity for pain. From this initial ethical critique of daily life, the volume turns to the realm of public affairs, examining the biographies and political decrees surrounding the ten great Attic orators, including Isocrates, Demosthenes, and Hyperides. These accounts detail their civic struggles, their oratorical labor, their wealth, and the public honors or decrees awarded to them and their descendants by the Athenian state.

Having established the stakes of public speech and historical legacy, the focus shifts to the responsibilities of age and the practical execution of statecraft. An aged man ought not to withdraw from civic duty out of fear or ease; long experience equips him with political wisdom, prudence, and a steady hand to guide his community. Envy, which attacks younger men like thick smoke at the start of a fire, vanishes as a leader achieves familiar glory. Effective statesmen must choose virtuous companions, guide magistrates with patient counsel, and intervene directly when public necessity demands action to preserve the common good.

From human politics, the inquiry broadens into the mental capacity and moral worth of the animal kingdom. Reason and understanding are not exclusive to human beings. All creatures capable of sense must also possess understanding, as sense without mind is blind and deaf. Land animals demonstrate memory, purpose, devotion, and even strategic calculation, as seen in the loyalty of dogs who leap onto their masters' funeral pyres, or the tenderness of an elephant cradling a wounded king. Even the creatures of the sea display staggering order and arithmetic skill, such as tunnies that swim together in perfect cubic formations to present equal fronts in every direction.

The text then transitions into natural philosophy and cosmological speculation. A detailed dialogue examines the physical nature and divine role of the moon. Refuting the idea that the moon is merely a lightless ghost or a celestial anomaly, the argument demonstrates that it is a solid, earth-like body positioned in the heavens. The moon acts as a vital intermediate realm, receiving and resolving human souls after death, joining and separating understanding and passion before they are born again into earthly bodies.

Finally, the work probes the fundamental elements of the universe, debating the nature of cold and heat, fire and water. Cold is not a mere absence of heat, but an active, uncompounded substance with its own principles. Fire, meanwhile, stands out as an self-sufficient element that benefits all human senses simultaneously. The collection closes by contrasting high philosophical truth against brute sensory indulgence, warning that a life dedicated solely to bodily pleasure reduces man to the level of a beast, stripping away justice, law, and the divine beauty of virtue.

How It Unfolds

The condemnation of flesh The text opens with a fierce critique of eating meat, arguing that slaughtering animals for luxury rather than survival corrupts human character, dulls the intellect, and inflicts gratuitous cruelty on sentient beings.

The lives of the orators Historical sketches document the careers, speeches, and public decrees of Athenian statesmen like Isocrates and Demosthenes, highlighting their literary labors, political struggles, and civic honors.

The duty of the elderly statesman An argument unfolds against retiring from public life in old age, asserting that years of experience cultivate political wisdom and that true leaders must use their reason to guide the state until the end.

The art of political guidance Practical advice is offered to young leaders on navigating public office, choosing honest friends, bearing insults patiently, and intervening boldly when the common good is threatened.

The proof of animal intelligence The discourse demonstrates that animals possess genuine understanding, memory, and emotion, pointing to loyal dogs, gentle war elephants, and mathematically ordered shoals of fish as evidence.

The physical and spiritual moon A extended dialogue investigates the nature of the moon, proving it to be a solid, earthly body while explaining its cosmic role as a resting place and transformer for departed human souls.

The debate on primary elements The investigation turns to physics, analyzing whether cold is a distinct substance, how compressed air changes temperature, and why fire is the most complete and self-sufficient element.

The defense of virtue over pleasure The final movement refutes hedonistic philosophies, asserting that law and justice are essential to human dignity and warning that living purely for physical gratification reduces man to a beast.

The People

Plutarch The central author and moral guide of the volume, who seeks to cultivate virtue, civic duty, and rational inquiry in his readers. He stands against unthinking cruelty, political laziness, and shallow hedonism, insisting that human reason must govern both personal conduct and state governance.

Isocrates An eminent Athenian orator who lived to nearly a hundred years old and labored for decades on a single speech. He accumulated immense wealth through his teaching, navigated public envy, and died fasting around the time Athenian freedom fell at Chaeronea.

Demosthenes The famous Athenian statesman whose fiery eloquence and political courage earned him both fierce opposition and lasting public honors, including bronze statues and state-funded nourishment for his descendants in the Prytaneum.

Socrates The foundational philosopher who acts as a intellectual midwife, refuting the false arrogance of sophists through relentless questioning without ever asserting his own rigid dogma, operating as a purgative remedy for human ignorance.

Alexander the Great The legendary Macedonian king whose bond with his horse Bucephalus illustrates the deep, fiery respect that can exist between human beings and noble animals.

King Porus An Indian monarch whose life was saved on the battlefield by his loyal war elephant, which carefully pulled weapons from his wounded body and gently knelt down to prevent the fainting king from falling.

Epaminondas A courageous Boeotian general who broke legal constraints and extended his term of office out of absolute necessity to rescue his country and rebuild destroyed cities, setting an example of selfless public action.

In Its Own Voice

For the sake of some little mouthful of flesh, we deprive a soul of the sun and light, and of that proportion of life and time it had been born into the world to enjoy.

This passionate lament highlights the unnecessary tragedy of animal slaughter, where human wantonness extinguishes a living creature's rightful span of life merely to satisfy a moment of luxury.

As it is not easy to root up old trees, so neither is it to extirpate a long-continued practice in the management of the state, which having many roots is involved in a tangled mass of affairs.

Here, the text illustrates the deep, inescapable entanglement of a lifelong political career, arguing that an experienced statesman cannot simply abandon his public obligations without causing widespread disruption.

The mind sees, the mind hears; all other things are deaf and blind.

This ancient proverb is invoked to prove that physical perception is impossible without active intelligence, establishing that both humans and animals rely on understanding to make sense of the world around them.

What It's Really About

At its core, this volume is an inquiry into the proper use of human reason and the scope of moral responsibility. It repeatedly questions where the boundaries of justice end, asserting that human ethical obligations extend beyond our immediate political peers to include the animal world. Cruelty to beasts, the text argues, is not an isolated failing, but the root of a broader moral decay that undermines human empathy and civic justice.

The text also confronts the tension between private retirement and public duty. It argues that wisdom is not a passive commodity to be hoarded in old age, but an active resource that must be continuously spent in service to the commonwealth. Political power is treated not as a tool for personal enrichment or ambition, but as a heavy trust that requires constant vigilance, self-restraint, and courage.

Finally, the work probes the relationship between physical nature and the divine soul. By examining the moon, the elements, and animal instincts, it attempts to demonstrate that the universe is ordered by rational, intelligible principles rather than blind chance, urging readers to align their own conduct with the beauty of virtue.

Why Read It Today

This volume appeals to readers who enjoy deep, unhurried moral philosophy and historical reflection. It offers a fascinating glimpse into the classical worldview, where natural science, political theory, and daily ethics were inextricably linked. Reading it feels like sitting in on an expansive, highly educated conversation with an elder scholar who has spent a lifetime observing human nature, ancient history, and the natural world. What stays with you long after reading is its surprising, radical empathy—particularly its passionate defense of animal rights and intelligence, which feels startlingly modern despite being written nearly two thousand years ago.

The book is not without its difficulties. As a translation of a classical text, it contains long, complex sentence structures and dense historical references to ancient Greek cities, politicians, and lost literary works. Readers must navigate frequent lists of historic decrees, obscure anecdotes, and archaic scientific theories regarding the elements that have long been superseded by modern physics.

Yet, for those willing to match its measured pace, the reward is rich. Its insights on political leadership, the dangers of mob envy, the duty of elder citizens, and the moral weight of our everyday choices remain as sharp and relevant today as they were in antiquity. It is an ideal read for anyone interested in ancient philosophy, ethics, or the history of ideas.

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