Il nipotismo di Roma, or, The History of the Popes Nephews: from the time of Sixtus IV. to the death of the last Pope, Alexander VII

In Short

Written in 1667 by the Italian historian Gregorio Leti, this sharp political treatise dissects the pervasive system of papal nepotism from the reign of Sixtus IV through Alexander VII. Leti chronicles how successive pontiffs consistently diverted church revenues, titles, and lands to enrich their nephews and brothers. Blending historical analysis, personal anecdotes, and razor-sharp satire, the work exposes how systemic greed corrupted the papacy's spiritual mission and destabilized European diplomacy. It has endured as an irreplaceable eyewitness account of seventeenth-century Vatican statecraft and institutional corruption.

The Story

Leti traces the systematic institutionalization of nepotism within the Roman Curia across two centuries of papal history. The narrative opens under Pope Sixtus IV, whom Leti identifies as the primary originator of absolute Nipotismo. Sixtus established the precedent of transforming personal bloodlines into dominant political dynasties, bestowing unprecedented authority, lands, and church treasures upon his nephews, Cardinal Peter and his brother Jerom.

As the historical survey moves forward, Leti presents a recurring pattern of hypocritical governance. Pontiffs routinely enter the papacy professing pious intentions to reject worldly favoritism, only to capitulate to the demands of their blood relations once in power. Popes such as Alexander VI escalate this corruption by elevating their own illegitimate children—most notably Duke Valentine (César Borgia)—to vast domains through violence and intimidation. Even popes who attempt to resist the practice, such as the austere Adrian VI, find themselves reviled by the Roman public and court for denying their families expected wealth.

The text builds to a detailed examination of the early-to-mid seventeenth century, focusing heavily on the astronomical wealth accumulated by the families of Paul V, Gregory XV, Urban VIII, and Innocent X. Under Urban VIII, the Barberini family absorbs millions of gold crowns from the papal treasury, driving the Papal States into unnecessary military conflicts, such as the War of Castro, purely to secure territorial gains for their line. When Innocent X succeeds Urban, the administration falls under the iron grip of his sister-in-law, Donna Olympia, who operates a open market for bishoprics and cardinalates, selling ecclesiastical offices to the highest bidder while neglecting the public good.

The chronicle culminates in an intimate, contemporary critique of Alexander VII. Initially lauded for excluding his relatives from Rome to demonstrate saintly temperance, Alexander eventually succumbs to traditional family pressures. Bringing his brothers and nephews to court, he secures lavish marriages and high-ranking appointments for figures like Don Agostino. Leti argues that this tragic cycle is inevitable under the existing Roman system: human nature, combined with the structural incentives of the Papal See, ensures that every Pope will ultimately choose the enrichment of his house over the spiritual integrity of Christendom.

How It Unfolds

The systemic precedent Sixtus IV initiates the era of absolute nepotism by transferring the governance of the Church to his ambitious nephews, scattering jewels and public funds to elevate his lineage. This establishes a dangerous model for future conclaves, convincing incoming popes that family aggrandizement is the chief prerogative of their office.

Extremes of indulgence and austerity Alexander VI uses the papacy to build secular principalities for his illegitimate children, while his short-lived successor Adrian VI goes to the opposite extreme, sending his humble relatives home with nothing more than woollen suits and travel money. The Roman court reacts to Adrian's austerity with open hostility, branding his integrity as unnatural and uncouth.

The height of dynastic accumulation Under Paul V and Gregory XV, the role of Cardinal Padrone reaches its peak, with young nephews like Cardinal Ludovisio assuming absolute control over state negotiations while treating the Pope as a figurehead. Huge sums of ready specie, ducal titles, and massive annual revenues are permanently stripped from Church coffers to fund private family estates.

The Barberini squandering and foreign intrigue Urban VIII and his three cardinal nephews absorb tens of millions of crowns over a twenty-three-year reign, prolonged by deceptive diplomatic tactics that alienate foreign ambassadors and embroil the region in war. Their total monopoly on power leads to widespread public oppression and the eventual betrayal of diplomatic allies to secure family dominance.

Donna Olympia and the commercialized Curia Innocent X surrenders the administration of Rome to his formidable sister-in-law, Donna Olympia, who establishes an unblushing market where holy orders, benefices, and church revenues are auctioned off for personal profit. True merit is banished from Rome as the Papal court devolves into an enterprise driven solely by gold.

Alexander VII and the triumph of nature Alexander VII begins his pontificate with a resolute refusal to admit his kindred to Rome, earning public acclaim for his self-denial. However, he soon discards his pious mask, recalling his relations to bestow lavish wedding presents, public funds, and noble alliances upon them, confirming that no pope can permanently withstand the pull of blood.

The People

• Sixtus IV: The fifteenth-century pope who first establishes absolute nepotism in Rome, treating the vast resources of the Church as private property to elevate his nephews, Cardinal Peter and Jerom.
• Adrian VI: The former tutor to Emperor Charles V who attempts to reverse the corrupt customs of Rome by refusing to enrich his impoverished relatives, earning the deep resentment of the Roman populace and court.
• Cardinal Ludovisio: The ambitious nephew of Gregory XV who takes absolute command of public affairs, famously telling his curious uncle to eat, drink, and leave all state negotiations to him.
• Urban VIII: The long-reigning Barberini pope whose twenty-three years in power result in the drain of over thirty million crowns into his family's coffers and the launching of ruinous territorial wars.
• Donna Olympia: The sister-in-law of Innocent X who becomes the true master of the Vatican, enriching herself by selling cardinalates, bishoprics, and church revenues to the highest bidder.
• Alexander VII: The pope whose reign forms the immediate backdrop of the book; he begins his term by dramatically barring his family from Rome, only to capitulate and shower them with public wealth.
• Don Agostino: The nephew of Alexander VII whose arrogance and lucrative marriage to a wealthy heiress, subsidized by hundred-thousand-crown public gifts from the Pope, epitomize the vanity of the papal court.

In Its Own Voice

"A Friend of mine, calls the Advice to the Reader, the Sauce of the Book, because it is that part, which gives us a stomach to read the rest."

Leti addresses his reader in the preface, playfully explaining why he chooses to skip tedious courtly ceremonies and dive straight into his historical critique.

"What need you trouble your head, eat and drink, and let me alone to serve you."

Cardinal Ludovisio brusquely dismisses his uncle, Pope Gregory XV, whenever the pontiff attempts to inquire into the state business his nephew has seized control of.

"That he had a greater joy to have got the better of his Rival Colonna, then to have obtain’d so great a Princess for Wife..."

Don Agostino boasts openly after his lavish wedding, exposing the pure vanity and political rivalry driving the Pope's family acquisitions.

What It's Really About

At its core, the book is an uncompromising study of institutional hypocrisy and the limits of human virtue when exposed to absolute power. Leti probes the contradiction between the sacred claims of the papacy—such as divine inspiration and pastoral selflessness—and the vulgar reality of its financial practices. He demonstrates how the doctrine of papal infallibility is weaponized to excuse blatant corruption, arguing that the system forces even well-meaning men into moral collapse. Beneath the historical anecdotes lies a clear political argument: when public institutions are converted into tools for private lineage, state craft collapses into deception, diplomatic treaties become worthless, and the general populace is left to bear the financial burden of their rulers' greed.

Why Read It Today

Il Nipotismo di Roma offers a rare, unflinching look at seventeenth-century European power dynamics written by a contemporary who understood the intricate machinery of the Vatican. Readers who enjoy political history, court intrigue, or satire will find Leti's prose remarkably lively, sharp, and modern in its cynical observations, despite the archaic syntax of this early English translation.

The text presents very real reading challenges: the sentences are long and winding, the 1669 spelling and punctuation require an initial adjustment, and the author assumes a basic familiarity with early modern European history. Yet the reward is an incredibly vivid portrait of human nature under the influence of unbridled authority. Leti does not merely list historical dates; he brings the reader directly into the smoke-filled rooms of Roman ambassadors, the lavish wedding halls of papal nephews, and the sharp squabbles of corrupt cardinals. It remains a fascinating study of how power corrupts institutional ideals.